Sustained Infiltration of Neutrophils Into the CNS Results in Increased Demyelination in a Viral-Induced Model of Multiple Sclerosis.

Intracranial inoculation of the neuroadapted JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) into susceptible strains of mice results in acute encephalomyelitis followed by a cimmune-mediated demyelination similar to the human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). JHMV infection of transgenic mice in which expression of the neutrophil chemoattractant chemokine CXCL1 is under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter active within GFAP-positive cells results in sustained neutrophil infiltration in the central nervous system (CNS) that correlates with an increase in spinal cord demyelination. We used single cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) and flow cytometry to characterize molecular and cellular changes within the CNS associated with increased demyelination in transgenic mice compared to control animals. These approaches revealed the presence of activated neutrophils as determined by expression of mRNA transcripts associated with neutrophil effector functions, including CD63, MMP9, S100a8, S100a9, and ASPRV1, as well as altered neutrophil morphology and protein expression. Collectively, these findings reveal insight into changes in the profile of neutrophils associated with increased white matter damage in mice persistently infected with a neurotropic coronavirus.

Microglia Do Not Restrict SARS-CoV-2 Replication following Infection of the Central Nervous System of K18-Human ACE2 Transgenic Mice.

Unlike SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, infection with SARS-CoV-2, the viral pathogen responsible for COVID-19, is often associated with neurologic symptoms that range from mild to severe, yet increasing evidence argues the virus does not exhibit extensive neuroinvasive properties. We demonstrate SARS-CoV-2 can infect and replicate in human iPSC-derived neurons and that infection shows limited antiviral and inflammatory responses but increased activation of EIF2 signaling following infection as determined by RNA sequencing. Intranasal infection of K18 human ACE2 transgenic mice (K18-hACE2) with SARS-CoV-2 resulted in lung pathology associated with viral replication and immune cell infiltration. In addition, ∼50% of infected mice exhibited CNS infection characterized by wide-spread viral replication in neurons accompanied by increased expression of chemokine (Cxcl9, Cxcl10, Ccl2, Ccl5 and Ccl19) and cytokine (Ifn-λ and Tnf-α) transcripts associated with microgliosis and a neuroinflammatory response consisting primarily of monocytes/macrophages. Microglia depletion via administration of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor, PLX5622, in SARS-CoV-2 infected mice did not affect survival or viral replication but did result in dampened expression of proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine transcripts and a reduction in monocyte/macrophage infiltration. These results argue that microglia are dispensable in terms of controlling SARS-CoV-2 replication in in the K18-hACE2 model but do contribute to an inflammatory response through expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Collectively, these findings contribute to previous work demonstrating the ability of SARS-CoV-2 to infect neurons as well as emphasizing the potential use of the K18-hACE2 model to study immunological and neuropathological aspects related to SARS-CoV-2-induced neurologic disease. IMPORTANCE Understanding the immunological mechanisms contributing to both host defense and disease following viral infection of the CNS is of critical importance given the increasing number of viruses that are capable of infecting and replicating within the nervous system. With this in mind, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the role of microglia in aiding in host defense following experimental infection of the central nervous system (CNS) of K18-hACE2 with SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Neurologic symptoms that range in severity are common in COVID-19 patients and understanding immune responses that contribute to restricting neurologic disease can provide important insight into better understanding consequences associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection of the CNS.

Evaluating the role of chemokines and chemokine receptors involved in coronavirus infection.

INTRODUCTION: Coronaviruses are a large family of positive-stranded nonsegmented RNA viruses with genomes of 26-32 kilobases in length. Human coronaviruses are commonly associated with mild respiratory illness; however, the past three decades have seen the emergence of severe acute respiratory coronavirus (SARS-CoV), middle eastern respiratory coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and SARS-CoV-2 which is the etiologic agent for COVID-19. Severe forms of COVID-19 include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) associated with cytokine release syndrome that can culminate in multiorgan failure and death. Among the proinflammatory factors associated with severe COVID-19 are the chemokines CCL2, CCL3, CXCL8, and CXCL10. Infection of susceptible mice with murine coronaviruses, such as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), elicits a similar chemokine response profile as observed in COVID-19 patients and these in vivo models have been informative and show that targeting chemokines reduces the severity of inflammation in target organs. AREAS COVERED: PubMed was used using keywords: Chemokines and coronaviruses; Chemokines and mouse hepatitis virus; Chemokines and COVID-19. Clinicaltrials.gov was used using keywords: COVID-19 and chemokines; COVID-19 and cytokines; COVID-19 and neutrophil. EXPERT OPINION: Chemokines and chemokine receptors are clinically relevant therapeutic targets for reducing coronavirus-induced inflammation.